7.引用书信、谈话中的观点或文字
书信和谈话（含电子邮件、访谈、电话等）无法在正文后面的参考文献中列出，但应该在正文中使用括号夹注的方法注明出处。例如：
MLA：
Jesse Moore (telephone conversation, May 12, 1989) admitted the need for an in-depth analysis of the otherness expressed in the work.
APA：
Mira Ariel (e-mail, April 17, 2004) confirmed that accessibility marking played a crucial role in discourse organization.
Researchers may observe that Chinese English majors with no overseas experience often have a better command of English than American foreign language majors with no overseas experience have of the language they study (Eugene Nida, personal communication, November 8, 1986).
8.引用同一作者的多篇文献
按MLA规范，引用同一作者的多篇文献时，在括号夹注中应加入文献标题中的关键词组，如：
Lightenor has argued that computers are not useful tools for small children (“Too Soon” 38), though he has acknowledged that early exposure to computer games does lead to better small motor skill development (“Hand-Eye Development” 17).
或者
Computers are not useful tools for small children (Lightenor, “Too Soon” 38), though he has acknowledged that early exposure to computer games does lead to better small motor skill development (Lightenor, “Hand-Eye Development” 17).
或者
Lightenor has argued that computers are not useful tools for small children, though he has acknowledged that early exposure to computer games does lead to better small motor skill development (“Too Soon” 38 and “Hand-Eye Development” 17).
按APA规范，同一作者的不同文献可用出版年份来区别，如：
(Zhang, 1997) (Zhang, 1999) (Zhang, 2004)
括号夹注还可以表示同一作者的多篇文献，文献按发表次序排列，如：
(Zhang, 1997, 1999, 2004)
同一年份发表的文献应对年份另加字母，以示区别（正文后参考文献著录中相应的条目里的年份应加同样的字母），如：
(Bloom,
9.同时引用不同作者的多篇文献
括号夹注可以包括不同作者的多篇文献，文献按作者姓氏的字母顺序排列（注意分号的使用），如：
MLA：
The dangers of mountain lions to humans have been well documented (Rychnovsky 40; Seidensticker 114; Williams 30).
APA：
Distance from health care providers, lack of transportation, lack of health care providers, lack of information about the disease and various treatment options, poverty and social isolation due to geography are all factors which affect treatment decisions of rural clients (Brown, 2001; Sullivan, Weinert & Fulton, 1993; Weinert & Burman, 1994).
在MLA的规范中，如果不同作者的多篇文献过于冗长，则不用括号夹注，而使用脚注（见第
10.引用非直接文献（indirect source）
论文应尽可能避免使用非直接文献（即二级文献secondary source），但在无法找到直接文献（即一级文献primary source）的情况下，引文可以从非直接文献中析出，例如：
MLA：
Samuel Johnson admitted that Edmund Burke was an “extraordinary man” (qtd. in Boswell 2: 450).
（注意：“qtd. in”中的字母“i”不得大写。）
APA：
Grayson (as cited in Murzynski & Degelman, 1996, p. 135) identified four components of body language that were related to judgments of vulnerability.
One researcher (Grayson, as cited in Murzynski & Degelman, 1996, p. 135) identified four components of body language that were related to judgments of vulnerability.
引用非直接文献以后，在正文后参考文献著录中只需列入该非直接文献的条目（即上述实例中的“Boswell”和“Murzynski & Degelman,
11.引用文学作品和经典文献
按MLA的规范，有几种情况括号夹注内不标页码。
在引用剧本时应标出引文的幕、场、行，如：
In his famous advice to players, Shakespeare’s Hamlet defines the purpose of theater, “whose end, both at the first and now, was and is, to hold, as ‘twere, the mirror up to nature” (
这里的括号夹注表示引文来自剧本第三幕第二场的21至23行。（注意标点的使用。）
在引用诗歌时应标出引文的节、行，如：
When Homer’s Odysseus comes to the hall of Circe, he finds his men “mild / in her soft spell, fed on her drug of evil” (10.209-11).
这里的括号夹注表示引文来自诗歌第10节的209至211行。对不分节的诗第一次引用时应说明括号里标的是行数，使用“line”，以后的引用则不需再说明。例如：
第一次引用：(lines 5-8)
以后的引用：(12-13)
在引用有章节、分册的小说的时候，应标出引文所在的页码、册数、章节，如：
One of Kingsolver’s narrators, teenager Rachel, pushes her vocabulary beyond its limits. For example, Rachel complains that being forced to live in the Congo with her missionary family is “a sheer tapestry of justice” because her chances of finding a boyfriend are “dull and void” (117; bk. 2, ch. 10).
例子里的括号夹注表示引文来自该书第二册第十章的第117页。（注意标点和缩略语的使用。）
在引用《圣经》、《可兰经》等经典文献的时候，应标出引文的篇、章、节，如：
Consider the words of Solomon: “If your enemies are hungry, give them food to eat. If they are thirsty, give them water to drink” (Bible, Prov. 25.21).
例子里的括号夹注表示引文来自旧约《圣经》的《箴言》篇第25章第21节。《圣经》各篇的缩写有标准的写法，因而使用时应该注意核对。
12.对引语文字的更改
直接引语如出现在正文中间，使用引语的句子不得违反英语语法，不得出现“句中句”。图3.1右边一栏两句句子均包含了引语，但均不合语法。
正确：
So it is not like what Luthi calls “enter[ing] effortlessly into fruitful contact with distant worlds” (63).
正确：
Max Luthi points out that the first apparent thing in the fairytale is that it portrays its hero as “isolated” and often as “an old child” (59). 错误：
So it is not like what Luthi calls “enter effortlessly into fruitful contact with distant worlds” (63).
错误：
Max Luthi points out: “The first thing that is apparent in the fairytale …is that it portrays its hero as isolated. He is often an old child” (59).
为了使含直接引语的句子合乎语法，往往有必要对引语的文字作一定的更改。如果要删除引语中个别词句，可以用省略号（ellipses“…”）取代删除的词句。如果要加入或者更改个别单词或者词组，则可以将需要加入或者更改的单词或词组放在方括号（square brackets“[ ]”）以内。例如：
删除词句：
He stated, “The ‘placebo effect,’ ... disappeared when behaviors were studied in this manner” (Smith, 1982, p. 276), but he did not clarify which behaviors were studied.
添加词组：
Smith (1982:276) found that “the placebo effect, which had been verified in previous studies, disappeared when [his own and others’] behaviors were studied in this manner.”
无论删改还是添加字词均不得变更引语的原意。
注意：如果删除是在句内，应该空一格以后再加省略号。如果删除是在一句整句以后，则应在该整句最后的标点（句号、问号或惊叹号）不空格直接加省略号。省略号应该用三个句点。
13.脚注（footnotes）的使用
在MLA的规范里，脚注只应在下列两种情况中考虑使用：（1）提供有一定重要性、但写入正文将有损文本条理和逻辑的解释性信息；（2）提供因篇幅过大不宜使用括号夹注注明的文献出处信息。
在APA的规范里脚注仅仅在上述第一种情况下可以使用。
脚注应该使用阿拉伯数字编号上标，每页重新开始。
在下面两个例子中，前一个属第一种情况，后一种属第二种情况：
The commentary of the sixteenth-century literary scholars Bernardo Segni and Lionardo Salviati shows them to be less-than-faithful followers of Aristotle1.
….
Technological advancements have brought advantages as well as unexpected problems2.
————————————— Notes
1 Examples are conveniently available in Weinberg. See Segni, Rettorica et poetica d'Aristotile (
2 For a sampling of materials that reflect the range of experiences related to recent technological changes, see Moulthrop, pars. 39-53; Armstrong, Yang, and
（第二个例子中“Moulthrop, pars. 39
在脚注中提到的文献同正文中提到的一样，都必须在正文后面的参考文献著录中详细注明。
脚注可使用单倍行距，但相邻脚注之间应空1.5行。脚注的字体必须与正文一样。
二、参考文献著录的格式
参考文献著录在MLA规范里叫做Works Cited，在APA规范里叫做References。撰写论文时应仔细阅读MLA或APA的规范手册，本节仅提供部分著录实例，供参考。
1.著录已出版的文章
一位作者写的文章
MLA：
Stewart, Donald C. “What Is an English Major, and What Should It Be?” College Composition and Communication 40 (1989): 188-202.
APA：
Roediger, H. L. (1990). Implicit memory: A commentary. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 28, 373-380.
注意：
（1）在MLA规范里，作者的姓名应完整，应标明首名的全称和中间名的首字母。在APA里，作者的首名和中间名均应用首字母。
（2）在MLA规范里，期刊名与期刊卷数之间不用逗号。
（3）在APA规范里期刊的卷数（即“28”）应用斜体表示。
（4）按MLA的规范，标题第一个词和冒号后第一个词的首字母均必须大写，而其余每一个词的首字母，除冠词、介词、并列连词以及不定式符号（“to”）以外都必须大写。按APA的规范，标题第一个词和冒号后第一个词的首字母必须大写，而其余每一个词的首字母，除专有名词以外，均不需要大写。
两位作者写的文章
MLA：
Brownell, Hiram H., and Heather H. Potter. “Inference Deficits in Right-Brain Damaged Patients.” Brain and Language 27 (1986): 310-21.
APA：
Tulving, E., & Schacter, D. L. (1990). Priming and human memory systems. Science, 247, 301-305.
两位以上的作者写的文章
MLA：
Mascia-Lees, Frances E., Pat Sharpe, and Colleen B. Cohen. “Double Liminality and the Black Woman Writer.” American Behavioral Scientist 31 (1987): 101-14.
APA：
Barringer, H. R., Takeuchi, D. T., & Xenos, P. C. (1990). Education, occupational prestige and income of Asian Americans: Evidence from the 1980 Census. Sociology of Education, 63, 27-43.
无论用MLA 还是APA，第一作者以姓氏开始（加上逗号），继以名字或者名字的首字母，但是从第二作者开始，在MLA规范里以名字开始，继以姓氏，而在APA规范里以姓氏开始（加上逗号），继以名字的首字母。
如果作者人数超过三人，也可以考虑仅保留第一作者的名字，加上et al.（拉丁文 “and others”），如：
MLA：
Mascia-Lees, Frances E., et al. “Double Liminality and the Black Woman Writer.” American Behavioral Scientist 31 (1987): 101-14.
APA：
Barringer, H. R. et at. (1990). Education, occupational prestige and income of Asian Americans: Evidence from the 1980 Census. Sociology of Education, 63, 27-43.
书评、影评、电视节目评论等（Review）
MLA：
Kidd, John. “The Scandal of Ulysses.” Rev. of Ulysses: The Corrected Text, by Hans Walter Gabler.
APA：
Falk, J. S. (1990). [Review of Narratives from the crib]. Language, 66, 558-562.
收集在书籍中的文章（Selection from an edited book）
MLA：
Glover, David. “The Stuff That Dreams Are Made Of: Masculinity, Femininity, and the Thriller.” Gender, Genre and Narrative Pleasure. Ed. Derek Longhurst.
APA：
Wilson, S. F. (1990). Community support and integration: New directions for outcome research. In S. Rose (Ed.), Case management: An overview and assessment (pp. 13-42).
注意：（1）“Ed.”代表“编”。（2）在MLA规范中，书的编者的姓和名均用全称，在APA规范里，编者的姓用全称，名用首字母。
杂志中的文章
MLA：
Miller, Mark Crispen. “
APA：
Gibbs, N. (1989, April 24). How
